learning - theory and practice of emotional disorders Learning as disclosed in the behavior of a new experience. Stefan Baley treats learning as a process leading to the modification of an individual's behavior as a result of her prior experience . Such an approach provides the opportunity to learn in every field of human behavior. Teaching implies the existence of a memory that is the functional capacity of the nervous system for creating and storing traces of previous experiences and reactions. Consider long-term memory as a basis for behavior modification, which we call learning. Learning is the absorption of new responses and new forms of behavior. The term learning involves the acquisition of new skills impact on reality. types of learning Assuming that learning is manifested in changes in behavior by J. Altman (1970) distinguishes three types of conduct: - maintain a stiff morphogenetic program that does not undergo any modification under the influence of new experiences.
- behavior of giving to modify the epigenetic program that contains a significant innate component of which is needed to implement a share of experience.
- behavior programmed by the learning environment in contact with forms of behavior are emerging as a result of individual experience.
Adaptation Sensory habituation and
It involves the gradual loss of response to repeated external stimulation of medium strength. Habituation differs from the fatigue that can occur in relation to stimuli that appear very rarely. As an example of habituation, we can also replace the quenching reaction which is indicative of the overall reaction to each new excitation sensory stimulus. As the research shows EN Sokolov physiological symptoms indicative of reaction (eg blocking of alpha rhythm EEG) disappear as a result of repeated stimulus. This refers to the different modalities sense.
Learning through direct association of S - R learning and cognitive
stimulus, which regularly produces a particular response before learning, is called an unconditional stimulus (Sb). Neutral stimulus, which often occurs just before the advent of the unconditional stimulus, has the capacity to carry out this reaction, becoming in this way, the conditional stimulus (Sw). This process is called conditioning, reactive or classical conditioning. The reaction, which initially produces almost automatically stimulus unconditional is called an unconditional response (Rb). In the case of conditioning is generalized increase in excitability. Typically, stimulus generalization occurs as a result of which not only the right incentive conditioned stimuli but also other, somewhat similar to it also cause this reaction. The body begins to react only to the appropriate incentive and performs only the correct response, resulting in differentiation and inhibition of competing responses. Strength conditioning can be measured by resistance to extinction, as well as the amplitude response, frequency response latency or response time (latency).
diagrams of classical conditioning and instrumental
- In classical conditioning the response is related to the conditional unconditional response. The reaction of the conditional is never equal in terms of strength or size of the unconditional response, but it is the same kind. However, the instrumental response is different from the unconditional response
- instrumental reactions are somatic, are dependent on the central nervous system (any movement). However, contingent responses can be both somatic (eg, reversing a defensive reaction to the hand) as well as autonomous, dependent on the vegetative nervous system.
- enhance the appearance of classical conditioning is independent of what makes the body. The instrumental conditioned reinforcement is the result of a specific reaction of the organism, and is therefore dependent on the organism.
- Division reinforcements for positive and negative does not result in significant differences in the course of classical conditioning, while the influence on the course of instrumental conditioning.
Learning reaction complex and the acquisition of knowledge
Acquisition activity is complex, according to behavioral theory the formation of recurrent chains, individual cells and connecting such a chain is reduced to the use of secondary reinforcement methods and approximations. Many so-called concept. neobehawiorystycznych (for example, Hull's theory) various theoretical constructs intermediate between S and R, as H (habit - a habit) and D (drive - drive). A characteristic feature of all these neobehawiorystycznych or neosocjacjonistycznych concept was the recognition that the intermediate cells as internal stimuli or responses. Mowrer (1960) distinguishes three types of intermediate cells:
- emotions - fear and hope
- Purely stimulus
- purely psychological - the equivalent of acts bodźcowych
There are three stages of knowledge acquisition: cognitive, associative and autonomous. In the first stage is familiar with the situation of learners seeking additional information, repeat the facts. In the second stage (associative) make the linkages between the various elements of the activity, eliminating errors and reduce the duration of the exercise, which illustrates the sharp rise in learning curve. In the third stage (autonomous) automates the operation and growth of the practice is already limited. Mastering all the knowledge and skills can generally be assessed on two dimensions: speed and accuracy (precision).
factors acting in the course of learning
There are two ways of learning or in the manner or way of bringing together all the time. Learning is generally a good way of bringing together when the material is not too long and is available to us cognitively, in other words, we understand the material. When the material is very long we have to learn with interruptions due to certain effects (processes) connected in the gap between learning, such as rest, but also forgetting. These breaks should not be too long, because the forgetting curve shows that for the first time learned the material as soon forget. In addition to forgetting, rest things are happening related to the consolidation of memory trace, or neurophysiological, but also things associated with the expirations. In the learning process we observe two types of associations: the correct and incorrect. These corrections as enhanced, stronger, have greater strength, they undergo during the break to consolidate - consolidation. The expiration interval are less stable association, these incorrect. During the break, therefore, are happening: rest, consolidation, expiration of unfavorable associations. Learning is needed not only to repeat but according to some theories (mostly behavioral) associated with the name Thornidke'a which drew so. the effect of learning: reinforcement of these reactions are followed or accompanied by the effect of pleasure and satisfaction. In this respect are especially important to strengthen the positive.
reinforcements are primary and secondary.
Strengthening Primary are associated with stimuli popędowymi. Secondary reinforcements are those factors that used to be neutral, but which, as the experience of a body are of special importance, therefore, are those stimuli, which on the basis of experience are no longer neutral. Learning also depends on the size of reinforcements. The speed of learning does not depend on the size of reinforcement, but depends on the degree teachable off the (life to remember just after the end of the current study) but also of the deferred, that after a certain period of time. This strengthening should occur immediately following a correct response, and too much distance in time makes them operating properly. Instantly, therefore, be strengthened, especially in the case of children, are very important, an essential element of the learning process. When you are not given to strengthening in a systematic way, but occasionally, in general, the results are worse than regular reinforcements, there was a very interesting effect, namely, the reactions that were amplified sporadically, inconsistently or are very ill at expiration, this involves a paradox Humpreys'a, which can be integrated to explain the mechanisms of evolutionary us. Strengthening human have a hierarchical form, it involves the concept of reinforcement Premack'a, which says that the most probable are the reactions so far the most consolidated and they are in the hierarchy of our reinforcements occupy the foremost place, at most, as have the ability of most frequent occurrence, but I have one more interesting namely, the characteristics of an impact on the strengthening of lying down. Anyone without such a system hierarchy, "on top" we are the most common reactions (behavior) which can enhance reactions lying down, if it desires to use the zj. Premack'a This may be so guided by a learning process that lay at the head of these behaviors fair, reasonable, pragmatic behavior that may govern our behavior. Since they have the best chance of reactions to fixation, accompanied by pleasure, the role of reward and punishment is very important. In the learning process fully reward the greatest role. If we punish the behavior of a very attractive, there will bring to the complete extinction. The only way to change negative behaviors, but attractive, is to influence the human system of views or reevaluation of the entire hierarchy. If this is so is beyond the startup systems persuasion (which consisted of explaining the wicked behavior) is a learning process should include the great reward processes, namely strengthening: the reward (positive reinforcement), extinction of adverse reactions (Punishment) - leads only to temporary hopefully resulting reaction which followed the abolition of the penalty back again to the level of original. Thus, manipulation of reward and punishment is the most sensible induction process while maintaining persuasion (influencing the system of views, beliefs, persons) can lead to lasting change in behavior of the system. This is happening during learning.
role of repetition - the right frequency heuristics
- if we learn with some repetition of material not in the way it skompasowany first: Do not learn the material in a comprehensive manner skompasowany, if we have a lot of text should not teach it to in one approach, and should take breaks.
- secondly, the longer and more difficult material we had to learn the more you should be learning sessions over a period of time.
- them more difficult was the material pervious sooner forgotten, the shorter the interval should be.
- the more contained and organized is the structure of the material, the break may be longer.
- the longer the learning, the greater should be followed by an intermission.
- in the early stages of learning, the first session of learning, should be long, and it follows p short break. The next sessions of learning may be shorter and longer breaks, because in these intervals is the consolidation of memory traces, but also Expiration incorrect associations.
- applies to children at a younger age are less desirable desirable screenings and short break due to the effect of fatigue and very quick effect of forgetting.
- faster forgetting people should use shorter breaks.
analysis of learning curves - the right to exercise
If something long residence time in our consciousness that are more likely to make it even harder. Law practice says that with the progress learning skill increases are getting smaller. The fastest we learn in the initial stages of learning, then the curve is stabilizing, as far as time, or increase the number of repeat tests, nothing significant is happening, the curve is stabilizing. Increase skill as the number of repetitions and increased time does not increase what is to us an indication how to learn. These curves depend on individual differences. These curves depend on the type of material, it depends on the number of repetitions, from our fatigue, the periodic disturbances of attention, from the aspects of motivation, willing to learn What we are interested. The rate of learning is derived from many different factors.
Learning as a function of the number of transportation and the volume of material
Remembering or learning is also a function of the series. If we learn of some, long text, then we wonder what more we remember, what elements of this series are better remembered. The first are stored quite well these initial elements, the less well remembered is the measure easily remember what is closer to end. For example, in a row that we remember is these latter passages, but also psychologists have studied the impact of the length of a series to remember. It turned out that the rule of law including the Potential, the law formulated by Foucault.
Foucault's Law - with = KL2.
Saving depends on a constant which depends eg on the type, eg learning material, but is a function of the length of the material. The longer the material, the worse it memorable.
distribution of repetitions in time - learning all the time.
Many experiences show that the method of learning on and off gives better results, especially when we learn the material long. These staggering foster better remembering. He proved to Jost. Second law of learning Jost says, what favors this method of timing are the longer intervals that have elapsed since first learning to the next learning. The second law says that if we have two associations in our consciousness that is, two elements equally well learned, but one is older than the other repeat it again this association favors first. Learning to spread over time is also offered by some effects of incentive. Learning occurs all the time so. process of saturation, or fatigue. In 1927roku ZEIGARNIK noted that if for some reason you cut the learning process is part of a series of elements, or the content left off where learning is particularly well remembered. This is a phenomenon ZEIGARNIK. Frustracyjne effects are most likely responsible for this effect ZEIGARNIK, because here there is an additional emotional stress at the time of termination.
How long should the break in the learning process, that this process was the most impressive?
process of forgetting, was very intensively studied by EBINGHAUSA in the late nineteenth century, the forgetting curve shows that in the initial stages of learning to forget very quickly. They were described several years later by Jost. JOST first law says that if there are two associations of the same strength but one thing is older than the other, then over time the strength of old association will be weakened more slowly. The length of the pause depends on the type of material. Faster the forgetting of material meaningless. You have to understand something just to make sure that we will truly remember.
Ways repeat
When something we can already and stop the learning process, but we break without using the benefits of a break, once again repeat that it is called the first repetition. The first repetition of text is another gain arising from the fact that we already know how this text. This first iteration is a repetition of a trial. The first and test are repeated reinforcements, which leads to better retention. In the interval between repeats is process of forgetting. If the material is meaningful, ustruktyzowany age of cognitive operations on it we did, we have a sense of competence, no, this process of forgetting is less dramatic, slower, or interruption may be longer but, in addition to forgetting during the rest break.
preceding factors influence learning - transfer. Types of transfer and factors affecting him.
Transfer is the transfer of skill in the process of learning from previous tasks to the next. So transfer is the transfer of skill to the task, which we learned earlier in the task, then we learn. Such transfer is called positive transfer. Step absorbed initially, positively influenced the activity absorbed later. Material A had no positive effect, on the contrary, it suppressed (inhibited) learning material B. We were here a negative transfer. When we did not see any impact of the material here A to B there was a transfer of zero (0). Probably this transfer is associated with the processes of generalization. Such a transfer when both types of tasks you learn what steps are similar to each other, called the specific transfer. However, the transfer of non-specific is observed in situations where activities A and B are very different here comes the very interesting process, which involves learning the principles of learning - called insight - inside - to penetrate into the essence of what connects these two things very far apart and capture some relationships between these materials. Nonspecific transfer of learning requires conceptual knowledge of the structure of the material. There are some interesting learning process, which psychologists call cognitive learning. Retro active facilitation and inhibition, their methods of measurement.
Transfer a positive and proactive facilitation are very similar processes, only a pro-active facilitation is re-learning, the examination of how it is stored in memory. In a situation when there is a gap in learning and we learn again that the results observed in Group E are better, the material A were affected by re-learning the material B. This is called the Pro active facilitation. Pro active inhibition of this phenomenon called worse when we learn the material B from previous learning material of A. Again, this is close to the transfer of the negative, but here this is another bit of the review process these messages. You can also see nothing then the results will be zero. When the group E results are worse than those in group C, here the impact of math. B on the mat. And it was negative and this process is called retro-active braking. But when the group E we observe a better performance than in group A, if B is beneficial to A, it is retro-active facilitation - a reminiscence.
Factors affecting the forgetfulness.
When content is meaningless forgetting is very fast, if we use a material that is meaningful curve less sharply drops. Interference is rektro active inhibition or facilitation. A large part of the process of forgetting can be explained by the action of the interference effect. Expiration of this second process is responsible for forgetting. Expiration learned the material, a process dependent on external circumstances. Is associated with reinforcement. Responses are not reinforced extinguished, that it depends on things happening outside of us, whether the responses were reinforced previously learned. As a result, when we will not strengthened the material learned, it will be extinguished zupełnemu. Forgetting is a process that takes place in its own right within our structures anatomofizjologicznych and is due in large part to the deterioryzacją memory trace. Forgetting depends on the activity of the entity and is associated with the fact przeuczenia. Forgetting the more difficult the material was carried further przeuczony. When we strengthen reactions occasionally they are resistant to extinction. Forgetting is a process of spontaneous. One of the defense mechanisms of forgetting is repression, which is that we do not release the content for us, threatening to the level of our consciousness, we suppress them, and we disclaim, pushed out of our consciousness.
Social Learning Dollard and Miller
Dollard, Miller and Bandura to learn to say by observing the behavior of others, which lies in the fact that we also niedostajemy no gain, we learn not getting the rewards for this process. Such learning is called LEARNING substitute. A very important contribution to Dollard and Miller's research into social learning was to propose a mechanism for the association - a compound of the conditional response, with an internal emotional response, that is, the model or the impulse of external stimulation. Anxiety, fear may be a learned response, therefore, may be secondary impulse.
In what situations we can observe the emergence of CR as a result of secondary popędowych stimuli, such as fear and anxiety?
the Model Agreement, which allows us to understand human development and relationships between people of very early childhood and the breastfeeding period. In a situation where a child learns to drive active learning to reduce the desires, anxiety level is maintained at a low level. When the drive is reduced reward is in accordance with the principles of classical conditioning - develop very positive feelings. Dollard and Miller argued that, consequently, incorrect feeding system, the system threatens to reduce libido zgeneralizowaniem the anxiety and fear, which play an important role in the future. When a drug is reinforcing, and fear, it might be later in life man, that when it finds itself in a situation of high levels of sexual drive will feel the fear of loneliness. So, anxiety and other reactions mażemy probably learn if you do not have a corresponding desire to reduce the active position. Thus a great part of our miseries and neuroses, poor psychological health is derived from relationships with others.
Conflict
is associated with two opposing tendencies: the desire and avoidance. Avoidance gradient is steeper than the gradient aspirations. When we move away from the stimulus builds some reactions, the predominant tendency of "striving towards" the gradient is more inclined then headed toward the object, the desire predominates, there is no conflict, until we start to encroach on the area of \u200b\u200b"avoiding". The conflict begins when striving to avoid. One way to resolve this conflict, which is a source of anxiety neurosis is to avoid it, which is to move either towards the pursuit of either opting out of this, in a safe area for us, does not cause conflicts. An extreme example of the conflict and the hardest are the two trends to avoid.
What happens when a human develops a state of anxiety, a state that is called neurosis generalize lęku.Dollard and Miller argue that this conflict occurs when we are in line with the psychoanalitycznymi not realize it myself, when I force out.
Learning substitute
DOLLARD'A Experiment And Miller, which shows that the learning process that is taking over the social behavior patterns takes place smoothly, as is strengthening but not osobní child who is participating in and watching the behavior of the model, but when this model behaves aggressively or properly will be reinforced. Well, this type of learning is called learning without reinforcement substitution, while a strengthening of which is given in the experiment model, called the gain substitute. So called social learning foster learning, and this kind of gain, which is not reinforced is a person who is learning so-called substitute teaching. It turned is that when the model was reinforced for aggressive behavior followed a very effective adoption of such practices. But when he was punished these behaviors are harder to wyuczalne.
