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first Internal Motivation to engage in any activity because it gives us pleasure, or arouses our interest and not through external pressure or external benefits.
second External Motivation to engage in any activity due to external pressure or external benefits, not because they perform the task makes us happy or arouses our interest.
third The effect of over-justification is the phenomenon of perception their actions as caused by external factors and convincing underestimate the weight of internal factors.
4th Two-factor theory of emotion is a concept whereby the experience of emotion is the result of a two-phase process of perception itself - first, people will experience physiological arousal, and then seek an appropriate explanation for it, if you attribute this excitation source mającemu emotional nature, experiencing an appropriate emotion (eg, if you explain your own stimulation of the fact that someone is aiming a gun at them, feeling the fear).
5th Erroneous determination of the causes excitation is inappropriate to assign their own source of excitation, the consequence is false or excessively strong emotion.
6th I have Diagrams are based on our past experience to organize the structure of knowledge about ourselves that help us understand, explain and predict their behavior.
7th Autobiographical memory is a memory content for your own thoughts, feelings and behaviors in the past.
8th I reflected a perception of yourself through the eyes of other people and enable their views to their own concept of self.
9th Social comparison theory is a concept whereby we get to know their own abilities and attitudes by comparing with other people.
10th Social comparison is up comparing yourself with people who place higher than us in some capacity or features, to determine the standard of excellence.
11th Down Social Comparisons are comparing yourself with people who place the following in some capacity or features, aimed at obtaining a greater sense of smugness.
12th Self-presentation is an attempt to communicate through our speech, nonverbal behavior and activities, or who we are who we want to be regarded by others.
13th Targeting impressed with this conscious or unconscious arranging a carefully constructed presentation of I, which produce a certain impression in others, consistent with our objectives and needs in social interaction.
14th Ingracjacja is the process that people flatter a person, often of higher status, praise her and generally trying to arouse her sympathy for each other.
15th Promoting yourself is the process that people are trying to have a positive impression on others, describing manifesting their talents and their knowledge.
16th Bask in the glory of others are striving to improve their own image by tying up with people who have achieved success or are famous.
17th Creating excuses for a possible failure to create obstacles and coming up with excuses for myself, that in case of failure to have a ready explanation.
18th Conformity is a change in behavior due to real or imagined influence of other people.
19th Informational social influence to impact other people, which leads us to conformism, as we perceive them as source of information, providing guidance for our behavior, we adjust, because we believe that someone else's interpretation of ambiguous situation is more correct than ours.
20th Private acceptance of this adjustment to maintain the strength of other people without any real conviction that what they do or say is right.
21st Public conformity to adapt to the public behavior of other people without faith in what we do or say.
22nd Induction of a rapid spread of emotion or behavior in the crowd.
23rd Psychosis is a crowd, the appearance of a group of people of similar physical symptoms with no known physical causes.
24th Social norms is a latent or clearly defined rules for acceptable behavior groups, values \u200b\u200band beliefs of its members.
25th Normative social influence to impact other people, which leads us to conformism, because they want to be liked and accepted.
26th Unreflective conformism to obey internalized social norms, not to reflect on their actions.
27th Norma is a social norm of reciprocity, which states that if you get something good from another person, you are obliged to repay the same (keep the same).
28th Social influence theory is a theory according to which to adapt to the social impact depends on the strength, immediacy, and number of other people in the group.
29th Credit of trust is confidence that for a long time a man gets, adjusting to group norms, and when trust gets tired, maybe (if there's a chance) to maintain a breach of the standards, without the threat of retaliation from the group.
30th Effect of minorities is a case in which a minority group members affect the behavior or the beliefs of the majority.
31st Attitude is continued evaluation (positive or negative) of people, objects and concepts.
32nd The emotional component of the emotions and feelings that people associate with the object attitude.
33rd Cognitive component of attitude is people's beliefs about the properties of the object attitude.
34th Behavioral component of attitude is the attitude of people towards the object.
35th Communication is a persuasive message (such as speech or television advertising) convincingly to take a stand on the matter.
36th Program devoted to study at Yale Uniwesytetu change attitudes is to examine the conditions under which people are most willing to change their attitudes in response to persuasive communications; researchers focus on this, "who says what and to whom," that is the source of the message, the nature of communication and the nature of the recipient.
37th Model to develop a theory of probabilities, which assumes that there are two ways to change attitudes through persuasive communications, a central strategy occurs when people have the motivation and ability to focus on the arguments contained in the press; peripheral strategy occurs when people do not focus their Given the arguments, but are influenced by superficial characteristics (such as who is the sender).
38th The central strategy of persuasion is a case in which people analyze the persuasive message, carefully listening to and considering the arguments, this strategy arises when people have both the capacity and motivation to listen carefully to the message.
39th PERIPHERAL strategy of persuasion is a case where people do not analyze arguments in persuasive communication, but are under the influence of peripheral clues.
40th Personal relevance is the extent to which a case has significant implications for human well-being.
41st Announcements fear is of very persuasive communications that attempt to change the attitudes of the people by inducing fear in them.
42nd The attitude is based on knowledge This attitude is based primarily on the beliefs of people about the properties of the object attitude.
43rd The attitude is based on emotions is an attitude based more on feelings and values \u200b\u200bof the people than on beliefs about the nature of the object attitude.
44th Classical conditioning is the case, the stimulus that causes an emotional response is repeatedly experienced with the neutral stimulus which does not produce such a reaction until they become emotional characteristics of the first stimulus.
45th Instrumental conditioning is a case in which the frequency of behavior or taken freely rising or falling, depending on whether followed by positive reinforcement or punishment.
46th The attitude is based on maintaining an attitude based on the observation of how we behave towards the attitude object.
47th Availability of attitude is the strength of the relationship between the object and evaluation of this facility, availability is sometimes measured in which people can answer the question, what they feel to a question, or the object.
48th Immunisation attitudes is to make people immune to attempts to change their attitudes when applied to them through the initial low dose of arguments contrary to their position.
49th The theory of reactance (opposition to) is a concept which holds that freedom of choice okreżlonego threat behavior causes excitation of the opposition to the unpleasant, people can reduce this condition by engaging in risk behavior.
50th Theory is a theory wyrozumowanego action claiming that the best basis for predicting the planned, deliberate behaviors are attitudes of people towards a particular behavior and their subjective norms.
51st Subjective norms are beliefs about how other people, of which the opinion of the count, evaluate the specific conduct.
52nd The effect of frequency of contacts is a phenomenon that the more we see and contact with another person, the greater the likelihood that it will be our friend.
53rd Pure exposure effect is the phenomenon that the more we are exposed to stimulus exposure, the more we are inclined to like this stimulus.
54th Profit-loss effect is the phenomenon that the more we like the person, the more effort we had put in a change in its original opinion about us (ie not well-liked at the beginning of knowledge we are now well-liked), while the less we like the person, their more sympathy we have lost its original (ie if at the beginning of knowledge we liked, and now we do not like).
55. Social exchange theory: the theory that assumes that what people think about his relationship with another person, depending on how the perceive rewards that gives them this relationship, the costs to which a compromise to which (they believe) deserve and what the relationship is (they believe) likely to establish better relations with someone else.
56th A benchmark is a balance sheet (expressed in terms of costs and rewards), we expect from the union.
57th The comparative benchmark is the balance (expressed in terms of costs and rewards), we expect from a given compound, in comparison with another possible compound.
58th Theory is a theory of equality, in which it is assumed that people feel happiest in relationships where both costs and benefits which the participation of one of the parties are roughly the same as the costs and benefits attributable to the other side.
59th Brotherly love is a feeling of ownership, proximity to the other person not accompanied by passion or physical stimulation.
60th Erotic love is an intense longing for another person, accompanied by physiological arousal, and when everything is good (second page also loves us) are experiencing tremendous fulfillment and ecstasy, and when not to - we feel deep sorrow and despair.
61st Three-way concept of love is a concept whereby a state of love is comprised of three basic elements: feelings of intimacy, passion and commitment.
62nd The investment model of relationship is a theory, which assumes that what people seek in a particular relationship depends on the satisfaction, which gives them; satisfaction defined in terms of rewards, costs, and benchmark and comparative benchmark and investment that lose when you withdraw from this union.
63rd Exchange relations are interpersonal relations based on the need for equality (ie the need to compensate for cost-benefit ratio).
64th Relationships donations are compounds in which people are concerned primarily about meeting the needs of another person.
65th Attachment style to the expectations that people form the contacts with other people, waiting is the result of such ties between their first and their caregivers as babies.
66th Attachment style based on a sense of security is a way of attachment to another person, whose characteristic is trust, lack of fear of rejection and the awareness that this is a valuable and well liked person.
67th Attachment style is based on avoiding a style attachment to another person, which features an attenuation of the need to establish intimate contact with this person, because the implementation of this need was not successful, the people, which is characteristic of this style of attachment, with difficulty form close contacts with others.
68th Anxiety-ambivalent attachment style is a style attachment the other person, which is characterized by a concern due to the uncertainty of whether the other person responds to the need to establish intimate contact, resulting in a higher than average level of anxiety.
69th Pro-social Behavior is any action aimed at bringing benefits to another person.
70th Sociobiology is the perspective in which social phenomena are explained using the law of evolution.
71st Kin selection is a concept whereby an individual's behavior to protect the lives of people related to it are preserved through the mechanism of natural selection.
72nd Standard wzajemności to założenie, że inni będą nas traktować w ten sam sposób, w jaki my ich traktujemy (np. jeżeli pomożemy jakiemuś człowiekowi, to w przyszłości on pomoże nam).
73. Teoria wymiany społecznej to przekonanie, w którym przyjmuje się, że dwie zasady: zasada maksymalizacji zysków i zasada minimalizacji kosztów najlepiej wyjaśniają społeczne relacje.
74. Altruizm to każde działanie ukierunkowane na niesienie korzyści drugiej osobie z pominięciem własnego interesu; często człowiek angażując się w takie działania, ponosi określone koszty.
75. Empatia to zdolność to place themselves on the spot the other person and receive a similar event occurring and the feeling similar emotions (eg joy and sadness).
76th Empathy-altruism hypothesis is the belief that the empathy felt the other person tends to lend her support regardless of the consequences of actions taken.
77th Altruistic personality is a personality that is characterized by a tendency to help others.
78th The hypothesis of reducing the negative emotional state is the belief that people involved in helping others to get rid of their sadness and despondency.
79th Overload hypothesis Urban is the belief that urban dwellers, defending himself against excessive stimulation, which provides them with city life, they tend to close in on itself and avoiding contact with other people.
80th The effect of this relationship involving the viewer in the fact that the more witnesses of an emergency, the less there is a chance that any of them will intervene.
81st Accumulation of ignorance is a phenomenon in the sense that witnesses an emergency, each observing their indifference, to interpret the incident as minor and not requiring intervention.
82nd Dispersal responsibility is a phenomenon in the sense that with increasing number of casual witnesses reduced sense of responsibility for developments.
83rd Action is aggressive behavior intended to cause psychological or physical injury.
84th Aggression is a hostile act of aggression preceded by a feeling of anger, which aims to infliction of pain or injury.
85th Instrumental aggression is an act of aggression of achieving another goal beyond the task of pain or injury.
86th Eros is the instinct of life, the concept found in Freudian theory.
87th Thanatos is in accordance with Freud's theory - the death instinct, impulse responsible for man's aggressive tendencies.
88th Hydraulic theory is a theory according to which emotions are not released are cumulative and cause tension outgoing when it comes to the expression of repressed emotions.
89th The amygdala is an area in the cortex which is linked to manifestations of aggression.
90th Testosterone is a hormone which is linked to manifestations of aggression.
91st Frustration-aggression theory is a theory according to which present obstacles in achieving the desired goal of increasing the likelihood of aggressive response.
92nd This sense of relative deprivation unit (Or social group) that has less than it deserves, or less than that allowed it to expect, or less than having people like her.
93rd Triggering stimulus is the object of aggression commonly associated with aggressive actions (eg, gun), its presence increases the likelihood of acts of aggression.
94th Social learning theory is a theory according to which the learning of social behavior is through observation and imitation of other people.
95th Catharsis is a term defining the phenomenon of aggressive release of stored energy through physical activity, observation of aggressive behavior people or committing a deed bearing the same signs of aggression, such "release steam" decreases the likelihood of taking aggressive action in the future.
96th Dehumanisation is the process of depriving the victims of human traits and deprecjonowaniu its value (eg when the word "man" be replaced with the term "yolk"); dehumanization lowers resistance to making acts of aggression and makes the time taken in subsequent aggression facilitates this type of behavior and significantly increases probability of its occurrence.
97th Prejudice is a hostile or negative attitude towards distinguished group of people based solely on their membership in this group.
98th A stereotype is a generalization relating to the group in which identical characteristics are assigned to all its members, without exception, regardless of the real differences between them.
99th Discrimination is not justified, negative or prejudicial action against a member of the group, simply because it belongs to it.
100th Own group is the group to which an individual identifies with and feels a member.
one hundred and first Stranger Group is a group with which the entity is not identifies.
102nd Partiality towards one's own group is a particularly positive feelings and preferential treatment to people they described as part of our own group, while negative feelings and unfair treatment of others as belonging to a foreign group.
103rd Group minimum is insignificant group formed by a grouping of strangers on the basis of trivial criteria, however, the word minimum membership continues to be a bias towards a group of their own.
104th Uniformity is a group of foreign perception of those who belong to a group of foreign exchange, as more similar to each other (homogeneous) than in reality and also more similar to each other than members of their own.
105th Correlation of apparent is the tendency for the perception of relationships or correlations between events that are not related.
106th Model buchalteryjny is information inconsistent with the stereotype, leading to the transformation of this stereotype.
107th Model przekształceniowy is information inconsistent with the stereotype, leading to radically change the stereotype.
108th Stereotypical model of educating lower-order information is inconsistent with the stereotype, leading to the creation of the stereotype of a lower order, in order to assimilate this information, without having to change the initial stereotype.
109. Marginal error of attribution is a tendency to deal with the disposal of the attribution of the entire group of people.
110th Blaming the victim is a tendency to blame the people (to make attributions of disposal) for it, and they become victims, and primarily motivated by the desire to believe in it, that the world is fair.
111th Actual conflict theory is a theory according to which resource limitation can lead to conflict between groups that gave rise to increased prejudice and discrimination.
112th Finding a scapegoat is a tendency people when they are frustrated or unhappy, to move aggression against groups that are not popular or weak, and stand out in a visible manner.
113th Institutionalised racism is recognized by the racist attitudes of most of us, because we live in a society where stereotypes and discrimination are the norm.
114th Institutionalized sexism that discriminate against women be recognized by the attitude of most of us, because we live in a society where stereotypes and discrimination are the norm.
115th Conformity to standards is a tendency to niewychylania from the group in order to fulfill its expectations and gain acceptance.
116th Contemporary racism is prejudice ujawniane w subtelny i niebezpośredni sposób, ponieważ ludzie nauczyli się ukrywać swe uprzedzenia, by uniknąć posądzenia o rasizm.
117. Wzajemna zależność to sytuacja, gdy dwie grupy lub więcej grup potrzebuje siebie nawzajem i musi na sobie polegać, by osiągnąć cel, który jest ważny dla każdej z nich.
118. Klasa mieszana to takie zorganizowanie miejsc w klasie, by sprzyjało redukowaniu uprzedzeń i podnosiło samoocenę dzieci, poprzez umieszczenie ich w małych, zdesegregowanych grupach i spowodowanie, by każde dziecko w grupie musiało polegać na pozostałych, chcąc nauczyć się bieżącego materiału and function well in the classroom.
119th Memorizing is a process by which people notice and are directing their attention to information from the environment, because people can not perceive everything that is happening around them, and therefore absorb only a portion of the information available in the environment.
120th Storage is the process by which people retain in memory information gleaned from the environment.
121st Reminded that the process by which people recall information stored in memory.
122nd Memory is a reconstructive process of making that the memory of the event is distorted by the information that reaches us after the event.
123rd Erroneous determination of the source is wrong to identify the source of our memory representations (eg belief that recognize the man, because I saw him at the crime scene while actually recognize it, because I saw his picture in the newspaper).
124th Poligraf is a device that measures physiological responses (eg heart rate) when the typographer is used to detect the lies, the investigator tries to determine whether someone is lying, observing the physiological responses corresponding to those questions.
125th Testing the market through cable television is a technique used to test the effectiveness of advertising when the advertiser, in agreement with the centers of cable television and grocery stores, show ads randomly selected groups of people, and then examine whether these people are more likely to buy advertised products than those who have not watched those ads.
126th Subliminal messages are words or images that are not consciously perceived, but are reported to influence the courts, attitudes and behavior.
127th The technique of door-to-face technology to people to indulge request, which consists in the fact that people are first confronted with excessive requests, and then with a smaller, more reasonable request, on which it is believed that it will be accepted.
128th Technique foot-in-door technique is persuaded to indulge in begging, and the first involving a confrontation with a small request, which generally meet everyone agrees, and then asking more, in which he expects will also be accepted.
129th Relevance: it is how effectively test or measurement technique (eg, during an interview for a job effort) shows what can be expected (eg the level of work).
130th Structured interview technique to collect data during the effort to work, which consists in the fact that the interviewer asks all candidates the same questions from previously prepared lists, questions relate only to the candidate's qualifications for the job.
131st Theory is a theory of an outstanding individual and assumes that there are basic personality traits that make a person a good leader, regardless of the specific situation in which comes to her work.
132. Zależnościowa leadership theory is a theory according to which the effectiveness of leadership depends on whether one is focused on the task-oriented or interpersonal relations, and from that, what is the size of control and influence the leaders of the group.
133rd The leader of a task-oriented leader is concerned primarily performing work, and fewer feelings and relationships between employees.
-oriented leader is the leader of relationships focused primarily on the emotions of employees and relations between them.

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Psychology Psychological Definitions - Definitions (Part 1)

first Social psychology is the scientific study of how we think, feel and behave under the influence of real or imagined presence of others, focus on what makes that even intelligent and powerful individuals committing serious mistakes, faced with conflicting advice in relation to decisions of great importance.

second Construct is the way people perceive, understand and interpret the social world.

third Individual differences are the components of personality that differentiate us from other people.

4th Sociology provides general laws and theories of society, not individuals;

5th Social psychology examines the psychological processes that appear when people are staying together, which makes it susceptible to social influence;

6th Examines the psychology of personality characteristics that make individuals unique and different from each other.

7th Fundamental attribution error (Ross) is the tendency to overestimate the extent to which behavior is the result of tracking the impact of disposal of the Interior, and devalue the role of situational factors.

8th Behaviorism: school of psychology, which asserts that to understand human behavior, you need only consider the rewarding properties of the environment - that is it, how positive and negative events in the environment are associated with specific behaviors.

9th Gestalt psychology - school of psychology emphasizing the importance of the subjective test of how the object appears in the minds of people, rather than undergo testing only objective, physical characteristics of the object.

10th Self-evaluation is making people estimate the values \u200b\u200bthemselves, ie size, which perceive themselves as good, competent and decent.

11th Exploring social issues: how people think about themselves and about the social world, and exactly as selects, interpret, remember and use social information and the issuance of court decisions.

12th Observation is a form of systematic observation method, in which the observer is a trained social scientist who joins the answers to the questions relating to a particular social phenomenon, observing and coding them in accordance with the previously set criteria.

13th Participant observation is a form of systematic observation, in which observer interacts with those observed in human beings, but tries not in any way influence the situation.

14th Archival analysis is a form of systematic observation, in which the researcher observes social behavior by examining accumulated in a given culture, or archival documents (eg, memoirs, novels, magazines or newspapers).

15th Compatibility of judges competent to the degree of compliance between two people or more persons who act independently observe and encode the data group, by showing that two or more independent experts observing and coding comes to the same observations, the researchers ensure that these observations are subjective, distorted impressions of the individual.

16th Correlation method is a method, which is measured systematically the two variables or more, and to estimate the relationship between them (ie the extent possible to predict the value of one of them on the basis of the other).

17th This is a positive correlation relationship between two variables, which increase the value of one variable is accompanied by increases in value the other variable.

18th This negative correlation, this relationship between two variables, which increase the value of one variable is accompanied by decrease in the value of another variable.

19th Randomization is a way of ensuring the representativeness of the population selected for the sample group to ensure that each unit forming part of the population has the same chance to appear in the sample.

20th The experimental method is a method of testing causal relationships, the researcher randomly assigns participants to different experimental situations and ensure that those situations are identical in all respects except one, identified by the independent variable (the researcher expects the sole condition that that will have a causal impact on people's reactions.)

21st Independent variable is a variable that differentiates the researcher change or to determine whether it has an impact on some other variable, the researcher expects that this particular variable will cause changes to some other variable.

22nd The dependent variable is a variable that the researcher measured in order to determine whether an impact on the independent variable, researchers hypothesized that the dependent variable zalepy the level of the independent variable.

23rd The plan is a multifactorial experimental plan, which takes into account the more than one independent variable and each independent variable has more than one version or level, all possible combinations of these levels appear in the research.

24th Relevance is inside making sure that nothing more than an independent variable can not affect the dependent variable, it is realized by controlling the effects of all variables, and by random assignment of all tested various experimental conditions.

25th Random assignment of the situation is making sure that all subjects have the same chance to assign to the situation in the experiment, with random assignment of such a situation a researcher can be relatively confident that the differences in the personalities of the experiment participants or their prior experiences are evenly distributed to all situations.

26th External Relevance is the degree to which research results can be generalized to other situations and other people.

27th Situational Realism is the degree to which the experimental situations are similar to the situation encountered in everyday life.

28th Psychological realism is the extent to which controlled the experiment the psychological processes are similar to psychological processes occurring in everyday life, psychological realism can be high even when the situational realism is small.

29th User masking is a description of the research presented to participants, which differs from the true purpose of these studies, masking instruction is used in order to preserve the psychological realism.

30th Repeatability is a repetition of research, often involving people from other populations, or in other conditions.

31st Experiments in natural conditions, experiments carried out in a more real life than in the laboratory.

32nd Basic research is research poto designed to give the best answer to the question of why people behave as they behave, and conducted exclusively for cognitive curiosity.

33rd Applied research is research designed specifically to address a specific social problem, the creation of the theory of behavior is usually secondary to solving a specific problem.

34th Allowing participants to clarify the nature of the experiment the test before it starts, and obtain their consent to participate in this experiment.

35th Masking is a misrepresentation of the experiment participants or disguise the true purpose of their research or events that actually occurred.

36th Session to explain the disclosure of research participants after the experiment, its purpose and a clear explanation of what happened.

37th Cognitive dissonance is a feeling of discomfort caused by the drive, originally defined as a consequence of maintaining two or more together nizgodnych cognitive elements, then described as a consequence of involvement in the action that is inconsistent with the concept of themselves as decent and reasonable person.

38th Elements of cognitive thoughts, feelings, beliefs or knowledge about something.

39th Podecyzyjny dissonance is a dissonance, which is inevitably raised after the decision. In this case, the dissonance is usually eliminated by increasing the attractiveness of choice alternatives and rejected alternatives to devaluation.

40th Low-ball technique is unscrupulous strategy by which the seller invites the client to agreed to buy the product at a very low price, then claims that it was a mistake, and bear the price, often the customer agrees to purchase the zawyżnej price.

41st The concept I have is the sum of all knowledge about taking into account the identity, capabilities and roles.

42nd The validation effort is occurring in humans tend to increase the assessment of what worked so hard to achieve it.

43rd External justification to explain what gives a person for his dysonansowego behavior, indicating the reason for that lies outside itself (for example, if someone does something to get the big prize, or to avoid harsh punishment).

44th Justification is the elimination of internal discord by making some changes on its own (eg his attitude or behavior.)

45. Defense positions contrary to his own attitude is a process that occurs when someone expresses an opinion or attitude contrary to his personal belief or attitude.

46th The theory of maintaining self-esteem is a theory which says that the idea of \u200b\u200bus could be at risk zachowaniem the other person and that the size of this threat affects both how the person bliskajest nam, and the importance to preserve it for our concept of self.

47th Self-affirmation theory is a theory suggesting that people will eliminate the impact of dissonance excitation threat to their self-esteem by confirming its competence in the field, which is not associated with risk.

48th Samopotwierdzania theory is a theory suggesting that people have the need to validate your idea, I, regardless of whether this concept is positive or negative, in some cases, this trend may be in conflict with the increases, self-esteem and self justifying.

49th Puławka rationalize this as a result of actions caused by the reduction of dissonance excuses that will eventually run out of chain ludicrous and immoral actions.

50th Whitewashing himself is the tendency to justify their own actions in order to sustain their self-esteem.

51st Social cognition is the way people think about themselves and about the social world, and more specifically, as selects, interpret, remember and use social information and the issuance of court decisions.

52nd Saving is a cognitive theory which says that people learn to use effectively the intellectual and practical simplification of commonsense rules that help them understand the social reality because they are not able to affected the whole process their information public.

53rd Schemas are cognitive structures through which people organize their knowledge about the world according to certain themes, patterns strongly influence what we see from the received information, what we think and what would later remember.

54th Accessibility is the ease with which we can realize a variety of thoughts and ideas, the idea of \u200b\u200baccessible is one that is being made aware, or which can easily be recalled to consciousness.

55th Excitation pattern under the influence of events preceding increase in the availability chart under the influence of what was directly experienced before.

56th Hostile media phenomenon is the discovery that each of antagonicznych, heavily involved in the group sees something neutral, balanced communications media as the enemy, because the media did not provide facts in a unilateral basis, as antagonists "know" that it is true.

57th The effect of priority is the process through which our first impression concerning another person affects her subsequent behavior is interpreted in a manner compatible with that first impression.

58th The effect of persistence is the discovery that people's beliefs about themselves and the social world persist even if the data supporting these beliefs were challenged.

59th Self-fulfilling prophecy is a phenomenon that people: a) they have certain expectations of another person, (b) influences their behavior against that person (c) means that it behaves in a manner consistent with their expected output .

60th Heuristics are simplified the issue of judicial inference rules that they use people to spend the courts in a timely and efficient manner.

61st Heuristics is the availability of informal mental rule, under which people seem to the court, guided by how easily you can bring anything to the consciousness.

62nd Heuristics of representativeness simplified method of inference which consists in the fact that something classification is based on the degree of similarity to the typical.

63rd Information on the proportion of basic information about the prevalence in the population of the representatives of the various categories.

64th Heuristics anchor / adjustment is simplified inference method, which relies on posłuszeniu to a number or value as a starting point and then to formulate answers to the question by modifying this value, which is anchoring: people often do not modify it sufficiently.

65th Inference from a non-representative sample to make generalizations based on sampling information, which are known to be biased or unusual.

66th Estimation of co-variableness is evaluating the extent to which two variables are correlated, ie prediction of one variable (eg, how friendly the person) based on another variable (for example, that person's sex.)

67th Correlation of apparent is the belief that two variables are correlated, when in fact it is not, it follows from the scheme, under which there is a link between them.

68th Over-confidence is a barrier too great confidence in the accuracy of their courts, generally they are not as accurate for what they are adopted.

69th Non-verbal communication is the way people communicate, intentionally or unintentionally, without words, nonverbal indicators include facial expressions, tone of voice, gestures, body positions and movements, touch and gaze.

70th The rules of disclosure is culturally determined rules stipulating that non-verbal behavior suitable for disclosure.

71st Emblems are nonverbal gestures in a given culture are well defined, are usually direct their verbal counterparts, as a sign OK.

72nd Social role theory is a theory which says that gender differences appear in social behavior arise from the social division of labor between the sexes, this distinction leads to differences in expectations towards gender roles and gender-related skills that determine differences in social behavior between men and women.

73rd Hidden patterns of personality theory is that people use to group different types of personality traits, for example, many people believe that if someone is polite, it is also generous.

74th Attribution theory to identify how people explain their reasons for such behavior and the behavior of other people.

75th Internal attribution to the inference that a person behaved in a certain way, both because of its properties, as well as attitude, character or personality.

76th External attribution to conclude that a person behaved in a certain way because of the characteristics of a situation in which it was, it is assumed here that in this situation, most people are responsive in the same way.

77th The theory of the factors associated wniokowania a theory according to which we make internal attributions for a person if: 1) there nieiwele nietożsamych consequences of its conduct, 2) the behavior is unexpected.

78th Results nietożsame a specific course of action consequences, which could not occur the alternative action.

79th Expectations are based on expectations for the category of people based on characteristics of the groups to which these people belong to, for example, the expectation that someone loves going to parties, because it belongs to the association of lovers of the female admissions or sorority.

80th Expectations based on the expectations of the facility to a person, based on its wcześciejszych activities, such as the expectation that someone goes on holiday to the beach because it usually went to the beach in the past.

81st Model co-variableness is a concept by which we make causal attributions for a person on the basis of facts which vary with the behavior, such as how far someone's dance becomes nizdarny only when dancing with this, and no other partner.

82nd Compliance information is information about this, the extent to which other people behave towards those same incentives as well, as does the actor.

83rd Selectivity information is information saying that the extent to which the actor behaves in the same way to different stimuli.

84th Consistency information is information telling about the degree to which the behavior of any actor to a specific stimulus is the same despite the passage of time and other circumstances.

85th Fundamental attribution error is the tendency to overestimate internal factors pertinent to the disposal, and devalue the role of the situation.

86th Perceptual clarity of the information, which focuses our attention, people are inclined to overestimate the role of information przyczyniową, which is distinct spostrzeżeniowo.

87th The difference between the actor and the observer: the tendency to perceive the behavior of other people as a consequence of their use, while his own behavior is explained by the influence of situational factors.

88th Attributions in the service of ego is the explanations that attribute the success of which depends on factors internal use, for failures and blame external factors belonging to the situation.

89th Defensive attributions to explain behavior, which allows to suppress the awareness that one is mortal and prone to injury.

90th Unrealistic optimism is a form of defensive attribution involving the conviction of people that good things happening to them rather than their partners, and the bad meet others rather than themselves.

91st Belief in a just world is a form of defensive attribution, where it is assumed that the evil touching evil men, but the good meets good.

92nd The concept of our content is I, I, that our perception of our own thoughts, beliefs and personality traits.

93rd Introspection is a process in which a man looks into his house and examine their thoughts, feelings and motives.

94th The theory of self-awareness is the concept of accepting that when a person focuses on himself, he begins to evaluate their own behavior and compare them with its internal norms and values.

95th The theory of causation is a theory concerning the causes of our feelings and behaviors, many of these theories one can learn how the culture in which we live (eg, "foster a feeling of separation).

96th Amendment stance due to the search causes a change of attitude which is a consequence of thinking about the causes of own attitudes, people assume the compatibility of their attitudes to the causes that appear to be reliable and easy to verbalize.

97th Damping is trying not to think about something, research shows that the more people try not to allow themselves some thought, the more it appears just the thought in their heads.

98th Self perception theory is a theory suggesting that when you're unsure of our attitudes and feelings, or they are ambiguous, we conclude with them, observing their own behavior and the situation in which it appears.

99th Facial feedback hypothesis is a hypothesis proclaims that his own facial expressions may determine the emotion that is experienced.

100th Zoom out to underestimate the effect of one cause of our behavior, when a different cause jest szczególnie wyrazista i łatwo dostrzegalna.

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Why is non-verbal communication important in social interactions?

University of Huddersfield

Ksawery M Szymura

Business and Psychology

Introduction to Personality & Social Psychology

Why is non-verbal communication important in social interactions?

A human being is a social animal. One of its needs as Maslov (1954) suggests in his pyramid of needs, is belongings and love needs, relationships and contact within its own species. Humans have developed a very complex method of communication, known as speech. However psychologists have shown that non-verbal communication is even more important, and is more complex that had been previously realized (Argyle, M. 1988) that is why many publications about this matter came, and are still coming out, in the context relation to the professional and private life. It’s realized that non-verbal communication is important, and that is why people, who want to be good communicators, should have an understanding of this topic. The interesting part, and the topic of this essay, is why is it so important.

In order to answer this question, firstly we need to define the key term for this essay – non-verbal communication. All the definitions I have found while doing research for this essay incorporate that a synonym for NVC is body language and it can be delivered in many codes, by different signals. However, that’s not always the whole truth. I will only elaborate, on these which important significance for social communication is undeniable.

One of the most important non-verbal signals in social interactions is eye contact. The power of the eye as a communication tool is known in the animal world – moths, fish and birds have fake eye patterns in order to transmit a signal to the predator. When removed, the animal is more likely to be eaten.

Eye gaze is defined by Argyle (1988) as “the meeting of two peoples gaze or their looking into each others eyes” . Furthermore, during contact between human beings its main functions are expressing personal information, monitoring feedback and regulating the contact (Kendon A.,1989). Personal information such as liking or affection is communicated by the duration of the gaze. Argyle (1988) suggests that ‘People look more at those they like’ , on the other hand a extensive eye contact is initiated with people we are in conflict or to whom we have aggressive intentions. On the contrary reduction of gaze is often a sign of disapproval, a lack of control, ignorance, or a lowered level of intimacy, depending on the interactions context. Simultaneously the eye contact is an interaction regulator. Participants take turns speaking; the willingness to do so is signalled by prolonged eye contact, glances and other eye patterns. In his research Kleinke (1986) explains that humans look at others while listening more often and longer, than while speaking. In contrast good speakers will gaze form time to time to obtain feedback and judge how receivers understand and evaluate their message. At the same time the message might be corrected, in order to make the interaction more successful. (Hargie, O. and Dickson D., 2004)

The look of your face can transmit a as lot of information as your gaze. The face according to Charles Darwin (1872) is an affect display ; it shows the emotional state an individual is in. Because it is biologically based, a universality of emotional expressions occurs. People can communicate via their facial expressions cross-culturally, in contrast to, for example, gestures. The emotional contagion is also important for interactions – emotions spread between people thanks to their facial expressions. It is significant that an inappropriate facial expression my well block effective communication, because the person we interact with can receive a wrong projection of our mind-set.

I have mentioned earlier gestures, which are an effective way of interacting non-verbally or rather along with the verbal message. The utility of them depends on factors such as culture and the social situations context. Hand gestures cam illustrate the verbal content of the message, help to describe an event or either point towards an object while referring to it – then they are described as illustrators. Another kind of gestures are emblems, hand movements which have a verbal translation, usually short ones. Often they have a agreed meaning known within a culture or subculture (Ekman and Friesen, 1969). Freedman and Hoffman (1967) distinguish also self-touching, which is not so important for social interactions. It is only supposed to regulate the amount of tension. Gestures, such as body movements convey interpersonal attitudes. When people do interact with each other the adaptation of each others postures is a marker of how the participants of the conversation feel about each other and the interaction. Postural congruence occurs when interactors adjust their interaction continues. It is a good sign if the adjustments are in both directions. The art of Neuro-lingustic Programming (NLP) encourages people to match and mirror the postures and movements of their interaction partners, in order to establish rapport on a subconscious level (O'Connor, J. and Seymour, J., 1993 ) However negative body language, such as crossing arms or turning their head away should not be replicated by the other person.

Next, the posture can be one way of showing supremacy or submission. Animals show dominance by their size, strength by signs of relaxation, and lack of fear. Mature human beings project power and high status by drawing up to their full height, expanding their chest, taking a lot of space around them as well as using expansive gestures to support their communication. These are all attempts to increase their real body size. In contrast, low status is shown by lowering the head or slumping shoulders. In his experiments Mehrabin (1969) showed that dominance is communicated through asymmetrical arm and legs positions, sideways or backwards lean and hand relaxation – all signs of relaxation. Bodily communication is for sure the most common and effective way of showing dominance by human beings both in interpersonal and social situations.

How we are perceived, and what type of message do we communicate depends also on how we make use of the social and personal space. The study of it is commonly referred to as proxemics. Within its definition, it incorporates three main aspects such as the use of territory, interpersonal distance and bodily orientation (Hargie, O. and Dickson D., 2004).

Territoriality is the way a person uses and claims certain rights to a physical area. Primary territory is the one which is exclusive to an occupier, such as a house or a hotel room. An individual has full control over it. Secondary territory is associated to an area formally not owned, but might be perceived as that and others tend to respect it. An example of it can be a favourite table in a coffee shop or a bar. Thirdly, public territory is the space available to the whole society, and all use it for periods of time, for example park benches or parking spaces. In social relations humans tend to claim more rights to them then they are entitled to. When somebody threatens their space within the public one by invading it, the often feel offended, or at least uncomfortable. Due to this fact people leave markers to defend their part of the social space, what is communicated by placing various items on surfaces, such as a suitcase on a chair. The last and least obvious one is the interaction territory, which is created when people have a conversation. It exists only as long as the interaction, but other members of society tend to respect it, by avoiding its invasion when moving. A well know example from every day life is a group of people having an informal conversation in a corridor of a public use building. The areas and the use of them have a connection with the individuals’ amount of self-perceived status. High status people tend to claim more rights in all of the territories and others avoid questioning it. It is known that architectural layout can impact, on how humans make use of it. Social space designers do their best to compromise people’s experience of amount privacy, and the number of people that can use a facility.

The problem I have mentioned above has a connection to ones personal space. It is a ‘bubble’ surrounding body; within we are during the state of motion. It could be compared to a mobile personal territory. Depending on the cultural and personality differences and also social background the amount of space is variable (Argyle, 1988). When personal spaces overlap, we refer to it as interpersonal distance, which is significant to interactions. Shared relationships are clearly marked by distances, which can be broken down to four zones (Hall, 1966). The intimate zone (from touch to 18 inches)is reserved for friends and family and the casual-personal (from 18 inches to 4 feet) one for social functions and informal conversations. Further on, the social zone (from 4 to 12 feet) is used when a formal or professional interaction occurs. The last one – the public zone – is limited by visual contact and sound is for addressing larger groups of people, for example making speeches or giving lectures. One should have in mind when interacting, that an inappropriate proximity may make the interaction difficult, and adjust in accordance to the social context, it to maximise the effectives of his message.

Efficiency in communication can be also achieved by using such a primitive form such as touch. Children tend to explore the world using touch, until it is penalized by our society. The importance of the appropriate touch is unquestionable. It is shown that people, who are bale to communicate well via touch are assessed more positively (Burgon et al. 1992) and are more persuasive (Willis and Hamm, 1980). But touch is not always received with enthusiasm, in extreme situations it can be misinterpreted as a sexual offence. Haptic communication, serves many social functions depending on the interactions context. Some of the functions according to Heslin and Alper (1983) are: professional, social, friendship, intimacy and sexual. Professional touch is used to carry out a task (instrumental) or to convey emotion or attitude. In different societies and cultures touch plays various social roles, such as for example greeting. Depending on the intimacy level and situation it can be a handshake, nose rubbing, kiss or a gentle hug. A greeting can also be identified as a friendship or warmth marker. Within the friendship function it also expresses very often a positive emotional attitude, care, and understanding. Touching has a deeper meaning in the context in close relationships. Depending on the type of relationship it is an expression of different kinds of love, such as parental or passionate. The last form of touching is sexual. Masters and Johnson consider sex as the most effective way of communication. That is why non-sexual touching in extreme cases may end up in court. Status may be shown also by touch. People with higher status tend to touch more often in situations when this form of communication is not reciprocated. Finally haptic communication changes across the geographic areas of the world, lifespan, gender and many other variables.

To summarize, non-verbal communication is a very important carrier of information. The variety and complexity of different codes allows encoding a mixture of messages. Flexibility of it can be compared to the one that characterises human language. It should be emphasised that the semantics are different and cross cultural. Its role is as shown in this essay is highly significant and essential in and social interactions.

References

Argyle, M. (1988) Bodily Communication (2 ^nd ed.), New York: Methuen
Maslow, A. (1954) Motivation and Personality , New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hargie, O. and Dickson D. (2004) Skilled Interpersonal Communication. Research, Theory and Practice, New York: Routledge.
Furnham, A. (1999) Body language at work, London: Institute of Personal Development
Kendon, A. (1989) International Encyclopaedia of Communication , Vol. 2, New York: Oxford University Press.
Kleinke, C. (1986) Meeting and understanding people , New York: W.H. Freeman.
Darwin, C. (1872) The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals
Ekman, P. and Friesen, W.V. (1969) The repertoire of nonverbal behavior: Categories, Origins, Usage and Coding , Semiotica 1:49-67
O'Connor, J. and Seymour, J., (1993) Introducing Neuro-Linguistic Programming: Psychological Skills for Understanding and Influencing People , Thorsons Publishers
Hall, E. (1966) The hidden dimension , Garden City: Doubleday.